By Catherine T Wilson
If you have ever closely looked at the illuminated borders surrounding medieval manuscripts you will indeed see some very strange depictions of animals and of man, himself. Known as ‘medieval marginalia,’ these creatures often stretch the imagination to the limit (what was in that ink the monks used?) but the idea of combining two or three animals into one, or a creature that was half-animal, half-human was certainly not a new concept. Here then, is just a sample of some of the mythical hybrid creatures that existed since early times and made their way into medieval folklore.
THE HIRCOCERVUS (Or Trusty Servant)
The Hircocervus was supposed to be half deer and half goat and has been speculated about since antiquity. Both Aristotle and Plato discuss the Hircocervus in their philosophy, although to Aristotle’s mind the creature is clearly fictional. He utilized the idea of a fabulous goat-stag to express the philosophical concept of something that is describable even though it does not really exist. The first English language mention of the Hircocervus comes from a manuscript of 1398 which now resides in the Bodleian Library in Oxford.
In origin it is just the Latin word for a billy goat (hircus) attached to that for a stag (cervus). The fabulous animal has not, however, always had a simple form of a goat and a stag. In a book by Arthur Cleveland Coxe, Impressions of England, published in 1856, he wrote about a famous painting at Winchester College:
“I must not omit to mention the time-honoured Hircocervus, or picture of the ‘trusty servant,’ which hangs near the kitchen, and which emblematically sets forth those virtues in domestics, of which we Americans know nothing. It is a figure, part man, part porker, part deer, and part donkey; with a padlock on his mouth, and various other symbols in his hands and about his person, the whole signifying a most valuable character.”
Manticore
The legend of the Manticore originated in Persia and, like many monsters, reached medieval Europe via Pliny the Elder’s 1st century Naturalis Historia, which tended to be quite willing to accept such creatures. Similar to the Egyptian sphinx that proliferated in western European medieval art, the Manticore has the head of a human, the body of a lion and a tail of venomous spines similar to porcupine quills, while other depictions have it with the tail of a scorpion.
Flavius Philostratus, writing after Pliny, said:
“The creature has four feet, and that his head resembles that of a man, but that in size it is comparable to a lion; while the tail of this animal puts out hairs a cubit long and sharp as thorns, which it shoots like arrows at those who hunt it.”
Mermaids
The earliest references to mermaids are in Assyrian folklore and the creatures became well known in Europe via Greek adaptions of these legends. One of the earliest mermaid stories appeared around 1000 BC when the Syrian goddess, Atargatis, dove into a lake to take the form of a fish. As the gods there would not allow her to give up her great beauty, only her bottom half became a fish, and she kept her top half in human form.
In medieval times, mermaids went against the Christian view and so needed to be vilified. Many medieval depictions of mermaids show them holding a comb and mirror, meant to symbolise their sinful vanity. They became a symbol of lust and temptation, their beauty deceiving young men and luring them to their deaths. They were portrayed as capricious and often simply as evil. Melusine was a popular legend of a water spirit in the medieval period – for full details of this bizarre story see L&L’s blog ‘The Demon Countess of Anjou’ https://lionsandlilies.wordpress.com/2021/03/29/the-demon-countess-of-anjou/
The Pard
The Pard was believed to be a large spotted cat which could move at great speed, possibly inspired by a cheetah. They were thought to mate with lions in order to produce leopards.
One of the earliest known references to the pard comes from Pliny the Elder’s Natural History (the chapter is entitled “Lions; How They Are Produced”),which dates to around 77 A.D.
He describes how the lascivious male pard seeks out seductive female lionesses on the banks of Africa’s rivers, where species mingle. Later, the male lion, recognizing the peculiar odour of the pard on his lady lioness, will avenge himself with the greatest fury. But by then it is too late, and the lioness is already pregnant with a leopard.
As was common in medieval times, anything the church saw as unnatural was deemed to be evil. In a 13th century Bestiary, pards acquire a bloodthirsty, even demonic, reputation. ‘The mystic pard signifies either the devil, full of a diversity of vices, or the sinner, spotted with crimes and a variety of wrongdoings,’ reads the caption beneath its snarling face.
Monopods
Monopods made their way into European folklore also through the work of Pliny the Elder. As their name suggests, they are one-footed creatures. According to Isidore of Seville, (560-636AD is known for the legacy of ancient culture that he transmitted to the Middle Ages in his chief work, the Etymologies. He also invented the full stop, comma, and colon!) they:
‘…live in Ethiopia; they have only one leg and are wonderfully speedy. The Greeks call them “shade-footed ones” because when it is hot they lie on their backs on the ground and are shaded by the great size of their feet.’
The Unicorn
In the Middle Ages, unicorns had strong religious symbolism. They were associated with the Virgin Mary and stories involving the death of unicorns often paralleled Jesus’ Crucifixion.
Well into the Middle Ages, people believed them to be real. *See L&L blog https://lionsandlilies.wordpress.com/2018/08/30/the-unicorn-medieval-beast-or-heraldic-hero/ for a detailed history and description.
In medieval heraldry, a lion’s tail was added to the unicorn’s mix of horse and goat, and its symbolism matched perfectly to the chivalric virtues held by the knight. The proud, aristocratic bearing of the animal which also stood for purity (chastity for the knights), its kinship with the horse, (the same being the knight’s most prized possession) and the devotion to beautiful women as adopted by the art of courtly love, made it a perfect choice to use as a charge (a figure displayed in a coat of arms). The unicorn was fierce when attacked and protector to his foes, but it was also gentle and bore the dignity of solitude and wandering as did a knight. The only way you could catch a unicorn was by luring it with a pure maiden (a virgin), sometimes depicted naked in illustrations. She would sit quietly in the forest whereupon the docile creature would lay its head in her lap to sleep, sure of her protection.
Wyvern
The Wyvern was a large-winged reptile similar to a dragon – except for it having two legs rather than four, and unlike dragons, is rarely fire-breathing. Its tail is more serpent-like, the word ‘wyver’ (attested to 14thC) from Anglo-French ‘wivre’ is derived from Latin’s word ‘vipera’ meaning viper. A golden wyvern is believed to have been the symbol of the medieval kingdom of Wessex, and the standard for the kingdom of Mercia.
The Wyvern has the head of a dragon, a forked tongue, scaly neck and leathery wings, but two clawed feet of an eagle, and a long, serpentine tail which is often depicted as knotted, or twined upon itself, to indicate the extreme venomousness and violent temper. Wyverns have since then been seen as a symbol of war, envy, pestilence and even strength to those who bear it in medieval heraldry.
Yale
Pliny the Elder (mentioned above) is also responsible for the appearance of the Yale in medieval myth. Most descriptions make it an antelope or goat-like four-legged creature with the tusks of a boar and large horns that it can swivel in any direction.
Its name is thought to be derived from the Hebrew word ‘yael’ meaning ibex (any species of wild goat). Long used as a heraldic symbol associated with the British royal family, “the Yale” was a favourite symbol of Lady Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry Tudor, in the 15th century. There are yales on the roof of St George’s Chapel in Windsor Castle and it is included as one of the ten heraldic beasts that represent Queen Elizabeth II’s heraldry (The Queen’s Beasts – the Yale of Beaufort).
Griffin (Gryphon)
The origins of Griffins are unclear and in the early Middle Ages their appearance is variable but by the 12th century it had become more regular, comprising the body of a lion with the head and wings of an eagle. Because the lion was traditionally considered the king of the beasts, and the eagle the king of the birds, by the Middle Ages, the griffin was thought to be an especially powerful and majestic creature. It was popular in heraldry, symbolising the intelligence of the eagle combined with the bravery and strength of the lion. The griffin was also thought of as king of all creatures, known for guarding treasure and priceless possessions.
Catherine A Wilson co-writes with Catherine T Wilson (no relation). Their first book, The Lily and the Lion, was based upon their true-life accidental meeting and resulting friendship. All four books in their ‘Lions and Lilies’ series have won first place prizes in the Chatelaine/Chaucer Awards in the US and in 2019, The Traitor’s Noose won the Grand Prize Chaucer Award.
The Lily and the Lion – 1st Place Chanticleer Chatelaine Award – 2014
The Order of the Lily – 1st Place Chanticleer Chatelaine Award – 2015
The Gilded Crown – 1st Place Chanticleer Chaucer Award – 2016
The Traitor’s Noose – Grand Prize WINNER Chanticleer Chaucer Award – 2017
Lions and Lilies 